![]() Clearly more extensive field studies are needed to understand the dynamics of plant–animal interactions between carnivorous plants and spiders where they co‐exist as predators. Jennings, Krupa, Raffel, and Rohr ( 2010) conducted a laboratory experiment and field study suggesting wolf spiders and sundews compete, while Jennings, Krupa, and Rohr ( 2016) suggested sundews, wolf spiders, and toads compete. Relatively little work has focused on antagonistic plant–animal interactions where carnivorous plants and animals compete as predators, despite competition between kingdoms possibly being the most common form of competition (Barnes, 2003 Hochberg & Lawton, 1990 Trienens, Keller, & Rohlfs, 2010 Trienens & Rohlfs, 2011). These include prey–pollinator conflict where capturing potential pollinators can reduce growth and reproduction (Ellison & Gotelli, 2009), digestive mutualism where animals help carnivorous plants acquire nutrients from prey (Anderson, 2005 Anderson & Midgley, 2003 Chin, Moran, & Clarke, 2011 Ellis & Midgley, 1996 Grafe, Schöner, Kerth, Junaidl, & Schöner, 2011 Lam, Lim, Wong, & Tan, 2018 Lim, Lam, & Tan, 2018 Scharmann, Thornham, Grafe, & Federle, 2013 Schöner et al., 2017), and antagonistic plant–animal interactions such as kleptoparasitism (Burbridge, 1880 Scharmann et al., 2013). Carnivorous plants experience additional plant–animal interactions that other angiosperms do not. Since they have negative impact on animals, carnivorous plants capturing animals are considered examples of reversed plant–animal interactions (Thompson, 1981) for being the opposite of typical plant–herbivore interactions. Consequently, these plants have unique and complex plant–animal interactions because ecologically they function as predators. Antagonistic relationships are typically a cost to the plant and include herbivory and seed predation.Ĭharles Darwin ( 1875) first demonstrated that carnivorous plants capture prey as a source of nutrients. Mutualistic relationships favoring both plant and animal, including pollination and seed dispersal, are extremely widespread. These interactions can be complex where plants have different, simultaneous interactions with multiple animals ranging from weak to strong and occurring along a mutualistic‐antagonistic gradient (Rodríguez‐Rodríguez, Jordano, & Valido, 2017). Most angiosperms are influenced by interactions with animals in some form (Steele, Yi, & Zhang, 2018). ![]() Plant–animal interactions are diverse and widespread shaping ecology, evolution, and biodiversity of most ecological communities (Giron et al., 2018 Herrera et al., 2002 Lewinsohn, Prado, Jordano, Bascompte, & Olesen, 2006 Strauss & Irwin, 2004).
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